Category Archives: Visnu’s Avataras

Narasimha: The Man-Lion Avatara of Visnu

Narasimha is the man-lion avatara of the Hindu god Visnu. This particular incarnation is most well-known for his victory over the demon Hiranyakasipu. Narasimha’s victory required a circumventive nature in order to slip through the loopholes in the boon granted to Hiranyakasipu by the powerful god Brahma, which quite nearly ensured the demon’s immortality (Soifer 3). In later versions of the myth Visnu manifests in the form of the man-lion in order to save Hiranyakasipu’s son Prahlada from the wrath of his powerful father (Soifer 73). Prahlada is saved because of his loving devotion to Visnu which Prahlada maintains despite his father’s forceful efforts to change his son’s beliefs (Soifer 74). The increased importance of the role played by Prahlada alters the portrayal of Narasimha greatly in later versions of the myth (Soifer 74).

Before discussing the depictions, mythology, temples and worship of Narasimha it is beneficial to briefly discuss the nature of the god Visnu whom this avatara embodies. Of little importance in the Rg Veda, Visnu’s popularity grew over time and he became highly influential in the Puranas (Soifer 15). Visnu is described as a benevolent, bountiful guardian willing to help mankind (Soifer 16). He has the ability to take on different forms, avataras, which retain the characteristic of benevolence so central to Visnu’s basic character (Soifer 18). Visnu’s purpose and character is deemed so righteous that even when he performs deceitful acts they are considered to be done in the name of dharma (Soifer 23).

The Narasimha (Man-Lion) Avatara of Visnu (Gwalior Archaeological Museum 2017)

In the most famous versions of the Narasimha myths Visnu takes on the man-lion form which is described as ferocious and beastly in nature with one intent and purpose: to kill Hiranyakasipu and restore order to the cosmos. There are several depictions of Narasimha that show him in exactly this fearsome light. The Philadelphia sculpture of Narasimha’s central focus is on the man-lion’s two arms with claws being plunged into the belly of Hiranyakasipu who lies on Narasimha’s lap with innards spilling along his right side (Meister 291-92). The image of Narasimha found at Madhia also depicts a two-armed Narasimha supporting the demon’s back on his knee as he “leans over, his arms stiff, to thrust his ‘neither wet nor dry’ nails into the demon’s belly” (Meister 297). The image of Narasimha as a threat to demons in general instead of solely to Hiranyakasipu is depicted in the image at Nachna where a four-armed man-lion holding weapons, chases a sword bearing demon who is attempting to flee the fearsome wrath of Visnu’s ferocious avatara (Meister 297).

There are however, less gruesome and ferocious depictions of Narasimha. These images are found primarily in Andhra Pradesh where the Narasimha mythology has evolved to include local traditions, locations, and people. In this region Narasimha is often depicted with Chenchita who was a woman from a local forest tribe that Narasimha is believed to have married. There is a panel in the Korukonda temple that depicts Chenchita with a bow and Narasimha in a sitting posture removing a thorn from her foot (Vemsani 47). The Ahobaleswara temple houses sculptures of the couple that are each one foot tall and show Narasimha with his lion’s face and thick mane holding Chincheta’s chin with his right hand and a bow in his left, “clad from the waist and adorned with elaborate jewelry” (Vemsani 48). The Prahladavaradanarasimha temple houses two sculptures that stand two feet tall and portray Narasimha as having four hands (Vemsani 48). His upper right hand holds a sudarsanachakra (wheel), his upper left hand is obscured from view, the lower right hand touches Chenchita’s chin, and the lower left hand is wrapped around her (Vemsani 48). Again in these sculptures the couple is covered from the waist but in addition to jewels they are both wearing crowns (Vemsani 48). Through these depictions of Narasimha the observer gains a sense of human emotion associated with the powerful deity being a sensitive lover in contrast to his deadly and fierce portrayal in classical Hindu texts (Vemsani 48).

The very different depictions of Narasimha as a fierce demon slayer, and as a gentle, loving husband described above show that beliefs regarding this deity have evolved and changed over time as the myths concerning his exploits changed. The earliest form of the Narasimha myth is short and found in the Mahabharata (Soifer 73). Soifer states that “how the myth arrived at its rudimentary form, and where the figure of the man-lion came from remain unsolved mysteries” (Soifer 73). While the origins of this myth are unknown, Soifer’s study of eighteen versions of the Narasimha myth concluded that “central structural changes in the myths pivoted around the Asura Prahlada” (Soifer 73). As Prahlada’s role in the myths became ever more predominant the tone and structures of the myths changed until eventually they were centered on Prahlada (Soifer 73). It was the increased significance of the role played by Prahlada in later myths that ultimately altered the characterization and role of Narasimha (Soifer 74).

The story of Narasimha had simple origins in the Mahabharata which grew in later versions of the myth. The Mahabharata bluntly describes a part lion, part man who tore the asura Hiranyakasipu apart with his nails and gives no explanation of the motive behind this event (Soifer 75). The Bhagavata Purana describes Hiranyakasipu as a club wielding threat to the gods which provides the motivation necessary for Narasimha to tear the demon apart with his nails, but this version fails to mention the man-lion features (Soifer 76). In the version described by the Agni Purana Narasimha kills Hiranyakasipu, the demon’s brother and all of the other asuras so that the suras, who had been vanquished by Hiranyakasipu, could be restored to their rightful place (Soifer 76). These versions show the first major shift in the myth as the motive for Narasimha’s presence and actions become clear because of Hiranyakasipu increased description as a threat to the gods and the triloka.

The next obvious development in the myth involves the granting of a boon to Hiranyakasipu by Brahma; the boon also begins simply and grows more complex. The Brahmanda and Vayu Puranas both begin by describing the austerities performed by Hiranyakasipu that earned him a boon from Brahma, and end with Hiranyakasipu being torn apart by the nails of the man-lion to restore cosmic order (Soifer 77). The Harivamsa, Brahma Purana, and Visnudharmottara Purana are remarkably similar versions of the myth that claim the events described took place during the Krta Yuga as Narasimha is said to have arrived at the end of this Yuga (Soifer 79). Again in these versions Hiranyakasipu is granted a boon by Brahma for his austerities but the demon specifically seeks invincibility by listing several conditions he wishes not to die from (Soifer 80). These versions describe a reign of terror that followed the granting of Hiranyakasipu’s boon, as well as the displeasure of the gods who are upset with Brahma for granting such a boon to the demon (Soifer 80). The protests of the gods are quelled when Brahma assures them that Visnu will eventually conquer Hiranyakasipu, which he does in the classical man-lion form, however in these stories he kills the asura with one hand instead of the alternative clawing sequence (Soifer 80-81). Thus these versions introduce the idea of a boon given to Hiranyakasipu that upsets the balance of power and requires a clever solution, but also a change in Narasimha’s behaviour as he uses a less animalistic approach in killing his enemy.

The introduction of Hiranyakasipu’s son Prahlada in the Siva and Kurma Puranas marks the beginning of significant change in the focus of the myth as well as Narasimha’s role within it. In these myths Hiranyakasipu is power hungry and wreaks havoc on the world after Visnu’s boar avatar kills his brother, forcing the gods to live on earth in disguise (Soifer 83). In these versions it is the gods who seek Visnu’s aide, who like in the other versions takes on the form of the man-lion, this time setting out at sunset to destroy Hirankyakasipu (Soifer 83). Prahlada is introduced when he announces Visnu’s arrival as the man-lion and advises Hiranyakasipu to submit, but his advice is ignored and the demon is clawed apart on Narasimha’s knee (Soifer 83-4). These myths end not with the gruesome death of Hiranyakasipu, but with Narasimha crowning Prahlada king (Soifer 84). This again is a development in Narasimha’s character that moves him toward human characteristics and away from the original purely beastly mentality.

The final and perhaps most significant factor that influenced the evolution of the Narasimha myths is the introduction, and acceptance, of the concept of bhakti. The Skanda, Bhagavata, and Visnu Puranas depict most clearly the influence of bhakti on the myth. Like some of the versions mentioned above Hiranyakasipu is granted a boon but in these versions he asks that if should be killed, it be done by Visnu in the form of the man-lion (Soifer 93). The marked differences found in these versions are Prahlada’s devotion to Visnu and the fact that he is presented as a child (Soifer 93). Prahlada’s life is threatened several times because of his belief in Visnu and finally Hiranyakasipu demands that Prahlada make Visnu appear from a palace pillar or die by the sword (Soifer 93). As a result of Prahlada’s devotion to Visnu Narasimha appears from within the pillar to tear Hiranyakasipu to shreds with his nails, thus fulfilling the terms of the boon and also saving the devoted child (Soifer 93).

The ever evolving and malleable story of Narasimha gained the deity supreme status among Vaishnavites in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh where several temples to Narasimha can be found (Vemsani 35). The Narasimha temples that will be discussed each have their own local mythology stories associated with the temples and worship of Narasimha (Vemsani 37), however as the evolution of several Narasimha myths have already been traced above this section will focus on the temples themselves and the ritual practices performed in each, instead of the associated myths.

The Simhachalam temple is located in the northern coastal region of Andhra Pradesh and is one of the oldest Narasimha temples in the state (Vemsani 37). There is an image of Narasimha on the hill that is said to have self-manifested where the temple was built, presumably by Prahlada, in antiquity (Vemsani 40). Brahma and several other gods are said to have visited the temple which acts to sanctify the temple.

Worship at the Simhachalam temple is particularly complex because its Narasimha is the composite form of Visnu’s Varaha (boar) and Narasimha avartaras, known as the Varahanarasimha (Vemsani 37). Varahanarasimha is worshipped as a multiple deity because the statue of it located in the Simhachalem temple is a form of Siva on the outside but of Narasimha on the inside (Vemsani 46). This shows the combination of Saiva and Vaisnava traditions by the worship of Narasimha (Vemsani 46). Ritual practices at this temple involve covering the Narasimha with thick sandalwood paste throughout the year so that it comes to resemble a Sivalinga (Vemsani 46). The paste is removed only once per year in the month of Vaisakha on Suklatrtiya for twelve hours during an annual pilgrimage to the temple (Vemsani 46).

There are nine temples in Ahobilam, located on the hills Garudadri and Vedadri which are dedicated to the worship of Narasimha. Each of the nine temples is dedicated to one of nine forms of Narasimha that is said to have manifested in the area (Vemsani 41). The Bhargavanarasimha temple is located near the lake it is named for; similarly Pavananarasimha is located on the river it derives its name from. Yoganandanarasimha is dedicated to the form of Narasimha in meditation. Chatavatanarasimha and Karandanarasimha are both named for the trees they are located under. Ahobalanarasimha is the central temple which is located on the hilltop (Vemsani 41). Malolanarasimha is a peaceful form depicted with Laksmi, while Jwalanarasimha is located in a temple to the fiery Narasimha which is said to be built in the exact location Hiranyakasipu was killed (Vemsani 41). The ninth temple is dedicated to Krodhanarasimha which makes it the second location in Andhra Pradesh where Narasimha is worshipped in the composite form of boar and man-lion avataras (Vemsani 41).

Ritual practices of Ahobilam regard Narasimha as a son-in-law because of his mythical marriage to a local tribeswoman name Chenchita (Vemsani 47). Rituals therefore include a communal performance of the wedding during the annual festival Brahmotsava, as well as the offering of new clothes and gifts to the deity (Vemsani 47). Another festival that takes place in the area is known as paruvetautsava which is a hunting trip that includes a procession of the deity Narasimha through thirty-two villages and may last up to forty days (Vemsani 47).

The temple in Mangalagiri is noteworthy because Narasimha is worshipped not for his well-known victory over Hiranyakasipu, but for the destruction of Namuci (Vemsani 43). The hill that the temple is built upon is said to have been formed by the blood of the slain demon (Vemsani 43). At this temple Narasimha is depicted as Visnu and not just an incarnation of the god which is shown visually by the garland of 108 salagramas which are a symbolic representation of Visnu (Vemsani 43). Rama, Yudhisthira, and the Pandavas are said to have once visited this temple to offer prayers to Narasimha (Vemsani 43).

One of the unique and well known ritual practices at the temple in Mangalagiri involves offering panakam (jaggery water – jaggery is brown sugar) to Narasimha who is represented by a boulder projecting from a back wall (Vemsani 47). Half of the panakam is poured into the mouth of the deity which creates gurgling that is said to be made by the god and is interpreted as the sound of satisfaction, while the other half is given to devotees (Vemsani 47). Another ritual performed at this temple involves embracing palachettu, the tree of milk, which is said to bless people with children (Vemsani 47).

Lastly the temple in Yadagirigutta is found in the naturally formed caves of the western mountain range (Vemsani 44). Within the temple there are stone images of three manifestations of Narasimha including Jwalanarasimha, Yoganandanarasimha and Gandabherundanarasimha (double headed eagle Narasimha) (Vemsani 44). This temple worships Narasimha as a physician who cures the ill and assists people with worldly problems which places the avatara in a new light in which he is not the fierce, animalistic deity of classical texts but instead an amicable and approachable deity (Vemsani 44).

The most common ritual practice performed at the temple in Yadagirigutta is performed by the cured and those wishing to be cured (Vemsani 47). The ritual involves the performance of a mandala pradaksina (circumambulation of the temple), those wishing to be cured first take a dip in the Tank of Visnu and then visit the temple while their clothes are still wet (Vemsani 47).

In conclusion it can be seen that the incarnation of Visnu as Narasimha grew in terms of nature, significance, mythological complexity, visual depictions, and eventually in relation to the types of worship bestowed upon him as well. This is a deity with humble Vedic beginnings that evolved into a supreme deity in a large portion of India who is worshipped by both Vaishnavites and Saivites alike.

 

 

References and Further Recommended Reading

Meister, Michael W. (1996) “Man and Man-Lion: The Philadelphia Narasimha.” Artibus Asiae 56 #3/4: 291-301.

Soifer, Deborah A. (1991) The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avataras in Cosmological Perspective. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Vemsani, Lavanya (2009) “Narasimha, the Supreme Deity of Andhra Pradesh: Tradition and Innovation in Hinduism-An Examination of the Temple Myths, Folk Stories and Popular Culture.” Journal of Contemporary Religion 24 #1 (January): 35-52.

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Avataras

Visnu

Matsya

Kurma

Varaha

Vamana

Parashurama

Rama

Krishna

Balarama

Kalki

 

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/vishnu.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar

 

Article written by Ashley Malcomson (2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

The Relationship of Arjuna and Krsna

Arjuna and Krsna have what is described as a perfect warrior-friend relationship

(Katz 82). There are also many hints of the relationship being described as representing a great friendship between a man and god, as Krsna is Visnu, a god incarnate and Arjuna is a man. It is represented in many different stories throughout the Mahabharata. This relationship starts out as one of family members (cousins), both princes from neighbouring lands. It continues throughout the massive epic to grow and change as the two men grow and learn how to deal with life’s lessons and how to be dharmic in every scenario. Learning from one another as much as learning with one another. This is shown particularly in the stories of The Burning of the Khandava Forest, as well as the Great War of Kurukshetra. It is also well represented within the smaller appearances of Krsna in the lives of the Pandavas and Arjunas throughout the Mahabharata. The relationship of the two men grows through the devotion and loyalty shown by Arjuna and it is ultimately the saviour of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra war (Katz 239-248).

The relationship starts out in the beginning of the Mahabharata with the birth of Arjuna, the son of the god Indra. Spoken by a figureless voice, comparisons between Arjuna to the god Visnu are made (Katz 29). The bodiless voice states that in one way or another Arjuna will bring as much joy to his mother as Visnu brought to his (Katz 29). This early comparison of the god and the man already foreshadows some of the experiences to be had by Arjuna and Krsna later on in the epic. It brings forth the idea that the two men really complete one another and are destined to be brought together in life. The symbolism of the ying and the yang is sometimes used to represent the friendship between these two men (Katz 83). Not that one is either the ying or the yang but that they both complete each other and make full contributions to the relationship (Katz 83). They are even referred to as the two Krsnas in some versions of the Mahabharata, the common meaning being that the two are so completely in sync with one another they are simply one and the same mind but two beings (Bryant 25).

The two men’s bond grows even stronger when Arjuna takes Krsna’s sister, Subhadra, as his wife. He first asks Krsna what his thoughts are on this idea of marriage to his sister and

Krsna approves right away exclaiming that Arjuna is the perfect match for his sister (Katz 63). Arjuna then sneaks into the kingdom where the princess lives and he causes her to fall in love with him. He then abducts the princess causing anger and an uproar within Krsna’s family. Krsna then speaks to his family in favour of the union between Arjuna and Subhadra and convinced his family that his sister’s marriage to Arjuna is not only a good thing but that Arjuna is the most suitable match for Subhadra (Katz 63). This shows a preference for Krsna’s friendship with Arjuna over that of his family’s wishes. It shows a strong commitment to a friendship in choosing Arjuna over his family. After this union of families Krsna and Arjuna are now brothers-in-law. This only strengthens their friendship as they are even closer relatives now; it also draws a parallel to them being actual brothers and therefore causing them to share an incredibly tight bond. They celebrate their new found brotherhood by going out to play in the water of a river, and so begins the story of The burning of the Khandava Forest.

In this story the two men show the reciprocity of their respect for one another and the equality of their relationship by teaming up and defeating gods and animals. This story starts out with the two, now brothers, running into the fire god Agni, who is hungry and asks to be fed. The two men comply with his requests and decide to burn down the entire forest and all the creatures within it (Rajagoplachari 41). According to C. Rajagoplachari editor of Mahabharata 6th ed. this story can be thought of as a connection of the two men’s souls as the growth of their friendship causes them to act as one/two people with one mind. It is about two men who are about to prove themselves to their fathers, themselves and their worlds (Rajagoplachari 79). This defeat of gods and father gives the description of the two men being outside of society’s judgments, as they are going against most of the lessons taught throughout the Mahabharata and killing the entire forest, alive with animals and plants (Rajagoplachari 79). This new opposing lesson causes reader/listeners to draw out the idea that these men must both have a deeper understanding of dharma and how to uphold it (Katz 79). Another similarity taken from this story would be that the two men know how to complement one another and by doing so how to fight off other warriors sufficiently. In the end of the story the men are granted a favour from the god Indra, who has now been defeated by Arjuna, a proven man to his father (the god Indra). Krsna chooses to remain close companions with Arjuna for all his life as his wish (Katz 82). This is an incredible request that lets us see the true companionship that Krsna feels with Arjuna and not just the devotion that is normally shown of Arjuna toward Krsna.

Part of the closeness between Arjuna and Krsna can be seen in its opposing relationship, between Krsna and Duryodhana. At one point Krsna goes to Duryodhana and shows him a truth. Much the same as when he shows Arjuna his true identity as the god Visnu in the story of the Bhagavad Gita. When Krsna does this Duryodhana, unlike Arjuna, denies Krsna’s truth and even threatens him (Katz 234). This little side story to the Mahabharata only accents the commitment and devotion that Arjuna holds for Krsna (Katz 234). The devotion that is shown by Arjuna for Krsna is a model throughout the Mahabharata. It shows up in many of Arjuna’s actions and words. For example when Arjuna stands at the foot of Krsna’s bed instead of the head, where Duryodhana stands, this shows Arjuna to be a humble man who is attached to the idea of Krsna as a great alliance rather than simply a strong weapon.

There are also references to the relationship between the gods, Indra and Visnu. Indra who is Arjuna’s father and Visnu, who is Krsna, represent fathers to both the men. The two gods have a friendship themselves and the friendship between Arjuna and Krsna hints at the same friendship as the one shared between the two father gods (Katz 83). This is an interesting side note as it leads to the idea of a strong eternal friendship between two equals.

Right after the Pandavas are exiled for thirteen years by Duryodhana they begin their journey into the forest. Krsna, hearing of their exile, rushes out to say goodbye to them and to see them off. He finds the Pandavas and appears to them in the forest. He comforts them, especially Draupadi, who is upset over her disrobing scene. He then assures vengeance on the Kauravas, then says goodbye and is on his way. This may represent the idea that god is always with you/always finds you (Mahabharata 54).

Before the great war of Kurukshetra, Arjuna and his cousin Duryodhana race to Krsnas kingdom in efforts of recruiting him for either side of the war. Krsna then gives Arjuna the choice of either using Krsna’s army for the war or Krsna himself as an advisor. Arjuna chooses Krsna as his advisor and chariot driver. In choosing Krsna as his advisor, Arjuna shows his loyalty and support in his friendship with Krsna.

At some points it is said that Arjuna is Krsna’s companion and in others it is said that Krsna is Arjunas companion (Katz 82). This friendship grows out of its equality, stability and emotional support on both sides. It is Krsna’s duty to guide Arjuna through life and keep him on the path of his dharmic duties (Bryant 8). Sometimes Krsna is needed to show Arjuna the path of dharma and this is what he does through some of the stories in the Mahabharata (Katz 83).
This way of the dharmic path Krsna shows to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita when he tells Arjuna what to do in the war in many different scenarios that make the dharmic path confusing even for such a man as Arjuna, son of a god, with such intensity, that of a true warrior (Rosen 12). This need for a teacher as well as another warrior that Arjuna possesses is a common theme throughout this history of literature as well as human life. It shows up in almost all aspects of his life, when he needs someone to help him convince people of things, or when he needs another set of hands to defeat enemies. He also needed a teacher to help him with his duties in his life as a warrior. The theme of the warrior friendship seems to hold common place among many stories throughout history [e.g., Patroklos and Achilles (Katz 82)]. Most often the friendships have a bit of a hero complex, meaning that one man is greater than the other, or is seen as more important than the other (Katz 82). It represents a relationship with god himself and how humans should treat god and be treated by god. It is seen as the perfect friendship with complete trust, enlightenment, teaching and support (Katz 82). The devotion of Arjuna to Krsna is spoken about in Arjuna and the Mahabharata by Katz. She writes about how Arjunas’ devotion to Krsna is what makes him the best of all his brothers (Katz 233). It is the extra characteristic he holds that completes him as a perfect being. As well as this unconditional devotion to Krsna shows him to be representing of the warrior class and their specific dharma (Katz 235).

The idea to take away from Arjuna and Krsna’s relationship in this myth would be that god is one’s true companion in whom rests a perfect relationship (Katz 83). The Mahabharata is a story told that portrays a friendship between two men. One who represents the great hero who is a perfect student and is in search of the truth (Katz 15); the other who portrays an advisor, seen as god or a more aware/enlightened version of the first man (Katz 15). When put together these two men makeup a great team, which seems to represent god and man working together as one. Together the two of them are unbeatable and working as equals who are supportive and respectful of one another, it is the perfect relationship between two people-god and man.

 

References and Further Recommended Readings

Bryant, Edwin F. (2007) Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press.

Hiltebeitel, Alf (1990) The ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahabharata. State University of New York Press.

Katz, Ruth Cecily (198) Arjuna in the Mahabharata: Where Krishna is, there is Victory. University of South Carolina Press.

Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1970) Krsna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.

Rajagopalachari, C. (1950) Mahabharata 6th ed. New Delhi: Hindustan Times.

Rosen, Steven (2007) Krishna’s Song: A New Look at the Bhagavad Gita. London: Praegers Publishers.

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Duryodana and Krsna’s relationship

The meaning of Krsna’s instructions

The Dharma of Krsna

Krsna as a trickster

 

Noteworthy websites

 

http://www.hinduhumanrights.info/why-did-krishna-choose-arjuna-instead-of-karna-drona-o-bhishma/

http://krishna.org/arjuna-is-krishnas-friend-eternally/

http://www.krishna.com/dharma-bhagavad-gita

 

 

Article written by Jolene Anderson (April 2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

 

 

The Ten Avataras of Visnu

Visnu, one of the most prominent gods within the Hindu tradition, and is said to have descended to earth in the form of various avatars to intervene with worldly matters. Scholars researching the incarnations of Visnu proposed that like worldly matter, thinngs that are not attended to will slowly decay over time. The same can be said for dharma. Like physical objects, time withers dharma and leads to adharma without maitenance (Swamigal, 10). Each of Visnu’s incarnations can be linked to decay within the cosmic order; furthermore, all beings are put at risk when there is decay in dharma. Although there are ten main incarnations that Visnu is said to have taken which are outlined in the Garuda Purana, in other texts such as the Bhagavata Purana and elsewhere, there is mention of upwards of twenty different avatars that Visnu took. Though this may be the case, the ten avatars mentioned in the Garuda Purana, also known as the dasavatara, are considered to be the most important due to their profound impact on Hinduism. Common to most of the stories surrounding Visnu’s avatars is that he does not destroy his foes but either punishes them for a short time or defeats them in such a way that they are liberated in the process (Klostermaier, 89). Scholars have noted the progression of the dasavatara follows a sort of plausible model for evolution beginning with a simple water-dwelling organism and advancing to a human form.

1. Matsya

This is the fish avatara that is said to be the first incarnation that Visnu assumed. Matsya is considered to be the first avatara both chronologically and evolutionarily in that this is the least advanced of all the animal forms he embodied. In the Matsya Purana, it is said that the Vedas were stolen from the god Brahma by a demonic form born from a conch shell called Somaka. The Vedas housed the creative energy of the universe and were now going to be used by Somaka for evil purposes. Visnu then descended in the form of a gigantic fish and slew Somaka while subsequently returning the Vedas to their rightful owner. Matsya was also said to have saved creation from a disastrous flood by instructing Satyavrata, a pious king, to bring all manner of seeds with him in a boat when the floods came (Swamigal, 3). In this way, Manu saves not only himself but all material life on earth. This story has many parallels in other cultures, the Western equivalent being the biblical account of Noah (O’Flaherty, 181).

Fresco with Visnu's matsya (fish) avatara in a palace in Orchha, India
Fresco with Visnu’s matsya (fish) avatara in a palace in Orchha, India

2. Kurma

This is the tortoise incarnation of Visnu. In the account of Kurma, Indra was said to have met with a sage who gave him a divine garland. The garland was trampled by Indra’s elephant and Indra found it humorous. The sage was insulted and cursed Indra saying that he would lose all of his riches to the sea along with his divine position. Once this happened, giants invaded Indra’s domain and he was defeated. At this point, he approached Visnu for help and Visnu in turn told him to go with the giants and churn the ocean with a hill using a snake as a rope. This action of churning the waters can be equated to the Tantric practice of trying to taste Ambrosia (Reddy, Moorthy, & Reddy, 96). As they did this, the hill began to sink into the ocean and they prayed to Visnu for help who then appeared in the form of a tortoise to support the hill. Although crisis seemed to be averted, at that moment a poison appeared because Indra had not worshipped Siva or Vinayaka. Visnu ate the poison and they were saved (Swamigal, 7).

The Kurma (Tortoise) avatara of Visnu depicted on this pillar bas-relief at Srirangam Temple in Tamil Nadu
The Kurma (Tortoise) avatara of Visnu depicted on this pillar bas-relief at Srirangam Temple in Tamil Nadu

3. Varaha

Varaha is the boar incarnation that Visnu is said to have taken. In the account of Varaha, Vishnu’s two attendants, Jaya and Vijaya denied two sages seeking Visnu access to him. The sages cursed the two and the two became giants within the earthly realm. The two attendants in giant form, now named Hiranyaksha and Hiranya are considered to be cruelty personified, who then declared Visnu to be their enemy and attacked and conquered the minor gods. Included in the gods conquered by the two was Varuna, the lord of the waters. Hiranyaksha began to push earth down to hell [Rasatala]. As all this chaos ensued, Mother Earth prayed to Visnu for help. Visnu assumed the shape of a boar and bore the earth on his shoulders as he lifted it out of hell. Hiranyaksha challenged Visnu to mortal combat where Visnu killed him (Swamigal, 10). Though the Garuda Purana mentions the boar as one of Visnu’s incarnations, this particular avatar may have been originally attributed to the goddess Prajapati (Radice, 185).

Large bas-relief depicting Visnu in his descent as a boar (Varaha Avatara), in order to rescue the earth goddess, Bhu Devi; Mahabalipuram, India
Large bas-relief depicting Visnu in his descent as a boar (Varaha Avatara), in order to rescue the earth goddess, Bhu Devi; Mahabalipuram, India

4.Narasimha

This is the man-lion incarnation of Visnu. Narasimha is the most fearsome of Visnu’s avataras In this myth, Hiranyaka, the giant brother of Hiranyaksha who Visnu had killed, proclaimed himself king of the universe and decided to have revenge against Visnu for the his brother’s death. Meanwhile, Hiranyaka’s wife gave birth to a giant son, Prahlada, who was a devotee to Visnu. This angered Hiranyaka and he tried through many means to convert his son and turn him against Visnu. The giant tried through non-violent means such as persuasion to do so, but after these failed, he resorted to more violent methods such as having the boy bitten by snakes, stung by scorpions, and trampled by elephants among other things (Swamigal, 14). Then Hiranyaka pointed to a pillar and asked if Visnu could be found there and struck the pillar (Bharadvaja, 332). After the giant struck the pillar, Visnu burst out as a half-man, half-lion and cut out his stomach, drank his blood, and wore his intestines as a garland. Soon after, Visnu appointed Prahlada king of the giants (Swamigal, 15).

5. Vamana

In the account of Vamana, it is said that Visnu took the incarnation of a dwarf. This incarnation is important when studying the dasavatara as a form of evolutionary structure because Vamana could perhaps be equated to an early form of human such as Australopithecus or the early homo. Some scholars say that this is why Vamana appears before any of the other human incarnations (Reddy et al., 96). In the account of Vamana, Visnu disguises himself as a dwarf who was supposedly of such great beauty and strong spiritual aura that no one could refuse him anything (Swamigal, 20). The king Bali, who had claimed the earth was so charmed that he offered Vamana anything he wanted. Vamana asked only for a piece of land the size of himself. Bali agreed to this. The Vamana lay down and began to rapidly grow until he covered the entire surface of the earth thereby reclaiming the earth for the gods (Hopkins, 89).

Visnu's Vamana (Dwarf) avatara sends the demon Bali to the underworld
Visnu’s Vamana (Dwarf) avatara sends the demon Bali to the underworld

6. Parashurama

This incarnation is actually of Rama, but an axe-wielding version of Rama. In this tale, Parasurama and Rama coexist in the same time period and even interact toward the end. The story goes that at one point, petty princes and czarinas were entrusted with the care of the world but were conducting themselves in an adharmic fashion. Parashurama defeated these knightly communities twenty-one times (Reddy et al, 93; Bhardvaja, 333). He later learned that Rama had broken Siva’s bow at Janaka’s house and was enraged. In his rage he confronted Rama and challenged him to wield his bow. Rama did so with ease and Parasurama detected the presence of Visnu within Rama. Realizing his purpose as avatara was over and went away (Swamigal, 29).

7. Rama

The account of Rama, although mentioned in the Garuda Purana, can be found in full detail within the Ramayana. As the hero and central figure of the Ramayana, Rama is an important figure within Hinduism. Even as a young child Rama was involved in heroic exploits. As a boy he accompanied a sage to protect him while he made a sacrifice and in the process slew a demon (Wilson, 548). According to Klostermaier (87), Rama was conscious of his divinity in his every move. Though he knew this and was troubled by the prospect, he behaved as any other ordinary man. At different points throughout his life, Rama engaged in epic adventures. He became involved in the politics of a monkey kingdom and befriended Hanuman. His wife Sita was captured by a demon named Ravana and through a series of events, Rama and his companions rescued Sita, killed Ravana, and destroyed Lanka, an island where a demonic kingdom was located (Radice, 198).

8. Krsna

The avatara of Krsna is mentioned briefly in the Garuda Purana, but he is more widely known for his role in the Mahabharata. Krsna is widely held to be the most important incarnation of Visnu, but Krsna is not an avatar in the regular sense. Some claim that Krsna was the true form of Visnu manifested on earth rather than a disguise or alternate form. Though he could be considered Visnu in human form, he still possessed human qualities such as love, disobedience, and youthfulness, which makes Krsna a seemingly approachable figure. In the Mahabharata he serves as a companion and advisor to the Pandava brothers and aids in their victory over the adharmic Kauravas. He is the only avatara to have an entire cult devoted exclusively to his worship (Klostermaier, 95).

9. Buddha

The Buddha incarnation is a politically charged avatara. The Buddha that is Visnu’s incarnation is in fact Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. In the Visnu Purana, there is a war between gods and demons in which the gods lose. Their destruction is imminent until Visnu appears as the Buddha and distracts the asuras from their agendas by converting them to Buddhism. The Buddha, also called the magic deluder, makes fun of traditional Hindu practice such as fire sacrifices. The demons are distracted from their original intentions and the gods wage war on them and defeat them. It was simply an unfortunate byproduct of Visnu’s necessary action that people were converted to Buddhism (Radice, 231). Though negative anecdotes exist about the Buddha avatara, the Buddha is not viewed in an entirely negative light.

10. Kalki

This final incarnation of Visnu is seen as the future avatara that will not come until the end of the Kali yuga, which is the current yuga. Right before Kalki’s appearance, the world is supposedly going to degenerate into an adharmic place. Men will engage in unnatural relations with their mothers and daughters, people will become fond of nudity and unrighteous conduct, all manner of natural disaster and plague will occur, and only pockets of pious devotees will remain and will incessantly chant the name of Visnu in hiding. The world will be completely overtaken by vice and the like. At this point, Visnu will assume the form of Kalki, a black colored avatar wielding a fiery sword, riding a horse, and accompanied by a parrot. Upon his arrival, Kalki is predicted to destroy the wicked inhabitants of the earth and usher in a new age (Swamigal, 65).

Bibliography

Bhäradväja, K (1981) A Philosophical Study of the Concept of Visnu in the Puränas. New Delhi: Pitambar Publishing Company.

Coogan, Michael D (ed.) (2005) Eastern Religions Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hopkins, Thomas J (1971) The Hindi Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Klostermaier, Klaus K (2000) A Short History of Hinduism. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

O’Flaherty, Wendy D (ed. and trans.) (1975) Hindu Myths. London: Penguin Books.

Pulla Reddy, A (1981) “Evolution and Incarnations of Lord Vishnu: An Analysis of Dasavatara” Folklore 22, no.5.

Swamigal, Pandrimalai (1982) The Ten Incarnations of Dasvatara. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.

Wilson, H.H (trans.) (1989) The Visnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. Delhi: Nag Publishers.

Related Terms

Dasavatara

Garuda Purana

Visnu Purana

Ramayana

Mahabharata

Related Websites

http://www.slagram.net/Dasavatara-page.htm

http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/Avatars/Vishnu.html

Written by Joel Butler (Spring 2009), who is solely responsible for its content.

Ram(a) Navami and the Ramlila

Rama/Ram Navami/Ramlila

The Ram Navami is a yearly festival celebrating the birth of Lord Rama. He is the seventh incarnation of Lord Visnu, who was born to kill the demon Ravana. Rama was born in Ayodhya and is the eldest son of king Dasaratha and Queen Kausalya. He has three brothers named Bharata, Laksmana, and Satrughna. Rama was married to Sita on the occasion on Vivaha panchami (festival of marriage), which, was held on Margashirsha shukla panchami according to Valmiki. This day is also known as Sri Rama Navami, which marks the ninth day of the Shukla Paksha in the Chaitra month (March). Ram Navami also marks the end of the auspicious Navaratra period. The observance of this Vrata (vowed ascetic observances) is said to pardon one from all sins. Men of all grades and ranks including kings observe this Vrata for obtaining prosperity, long life, happiness and wisdom (Sharma 109). It is a popular festival and one that is adorned by Hindus across the world.

The celebration usually goes for nine days and concludes on Ram Navami- the ninth day. On this sacred day one would begin with a prayer to the sun at the temple of Rama in the early morning after bathing. Many people fast during this time some fast only on the first and last day of Chaitra, eating only fruit (phalahar). Some Hindus also make a small shrine at home and put a picture of Sri Rama Panchayatan in it and offer prayers of puja. Temples are decorated in the image of Lord Rama and the idol of Rama is also decorated and worshipped. Some devotees put a statue or photograph into a cradle and rock it to celebrate the birth of Rama. The holy book, Ramayana, is read in temples and pujas are conducted at mid-day in temples. They also have special havans (fire ritual) along with chanting of mantras and offerings of fruit and flowers (Kartar 37). An event that is popular in India is the Ram Navami procession the main attraction is a decorated chariot carrying four persons dressed as Rama, his brother Laksmana, wife Sita, and disciple Hanuman. Several other people dressed in ancient costumes, as Ramas soldiers accompany the chariot. It is the only festival that cultural programs are given such importance. Musical presentations discourse on the Ramcharitmanas (epic poem) and recitations of the Ramanyana composed by Valmiki go on for nine days Harikathas (stories of the lord) are arranged and conducted in some places for a month. (S.P. Sharma 98). Ayodhya being the birthplace of Rama is the center and focus of the festival and celebrations and a huge fair is there two of the nine days. The Kirtanists chant the holy name of Rama and celebrate the marriage between Sita and Rama. The ceremony is quite colorful and highly inspiring and enlightening. In Andhra Pradesh the festival is celebrated with great religious enthusiasm (Khartar 37)

The Ramanavami festival offers us an opportunity to understand some of the ideals and spirit preserved in Rama. On this grand day Lord Rama is worshipped, prayers are offered to him in order to absorb his ideals. One who approaches his lotus feet with love, devotion, and humility becomes noble, large hearted, pious, peaceful, master of senses and the beloved of the wise. (Manish 56) On this occasion people take a vow to devote themselves more to their spiritual and moral evolution. Rama nam is a great magic mantra and is like a wish-fulfilling tree (kalpa vriksha) and must be repeated, recited and meditated upon every now and then (Manish 56).

It is believed that Rama was sent to this world to destroy evil and uphold righteousness. He is said to hold the highest ideals of man and is called Maryada Pushottam, which means the perfect man. Rama is the ideal son, an ideal ruler, an ideal husband, and an ideal brother (Kartar 39). Ramraja (the reign of Rama) has become synonymous with a period of peace and prosperity and those who wish to achieve something worthwhile in life are to worship and absorb Rama (Kartar 39).  These characteristics of Rama and the devotion that Hindus pay to him is the reason that Ram Navami festival is so significant and so widely celebrated.

The Ramayana epic, which means the “ways of Rama”, is a story about Rama (Manish 56). The Ramayana receives great admiration as a great epic because it embodies human ideals and sums up the character pertaining to Indian reality. As a popular religious epic and great literary work the Ramayana is inspiring (Manish 56). It reveals why Hindus admire him and why there is a festival dedicated to him, the epic teaches moral lessons. Rama is the compliant and obedient son and the ideal king that is told in the epic Ramayana.

The Ramanyana shows the dedication and dharma that Rama showed in keeping his word and moral duties. Ramanyana is one of two great Indian epics and shows why his birth is celebrated with such high regard amongst Hindus. The Ramayana is about a King Dashratha who was from Ayodhya. He had three wives. King Dasharatha and his queen Kaushalya had a son named Rama. His brothers were Bharata, Laksmana and Satrughna (Gupta 98). Laksmana accompanied Rama on his in journey into manhood with Visvamitra in which he successfully killed the demoness Tataka. Rama then was requested to attend svayamvara, a ceremony where princess Sita in Mithila would choose a husband. King Janaka had challenged suitors to string a bow and Rama was the only one that was able to string the bow, and therefore won Sita’s Hand and brought her to Ayodhya. After Rama was crowned, Queen Kaikeyi had Rama banished to the forest for 14 years because she wanted her son Bharata to rule the kingdom.  After they reached the forest demoness Surpanaka made advances on Rama, Laksmana cut off her nose and ears. She then sought revenge from her brother Ravana, a ten-headed raksasa the greatest of all demons. Surpanaka told her brother how beautiful Sita was and Ravana then wanted her for him, so he went into the forest disguised as a deer and tricked Rama and stole Sita. Ravana tried to make Sita his wife but she refused and stayed loyal to Rama. Rama set out to find and save Sita with the help of brother Laksmana and disciple Hanuman. After they defeated Ravana and saved Sita they returned to Ayodhya. This epic is acted out in the drama Ramlila

Ramlila literally meaning “Ramas sport”(Hein 279) is an act of the Ramayana epic in a sequence of scenes that include, dialogue, recital, narration, and song. This traditional festival is usually performed in the Northern part of India during the festival Dussehra, which is a celebration of Rama killing Ravana. The ritual takes place during the month of October and November. This Drama is produced by several different kinds of troupes, but the performances, which go by this name, are always based upon the Ramayana. (Hein 279). They cover the main incidents narrated in his Ramcaritmanas in a series of performances lasting many days. They employ an unusual stage technique, which combines recitation of the sacred text with simultaneous acting and dialogue. (Hein 279) The sacred texts refer to the story of Rama, who was the hero of the Epic Ramayana.

The Rama Navami is a very important festival in the Hindu religion. It signifies the birth of Rama and him as a great epic hero. The Ramlila act of the Ramanyana epic is admired and enjoyed as devotees watch the story of Rama unfold. The festival is not only celebrated in India, but around the world. The Rama Navami has grown in admiration and is adorned by many Hindus.

Bibliography

Cath, Senker (2007) My Hindu Year: New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group.

Freek L. Bakker (1951) The Birth of Jesus and Rama in Christian and Hindu Sacred Texts: An Exercise in New Comparative Theology:Exchange 39 (2010) 121-146 brill.nl/exch

Kartar, Singh Bhalla (2005) Let’s Kknow Festivals of India: New Star Dehli.

Maithily Jagannathan (2006) South Indian Hindu Festivals and Traditions: Abhinav Publications.

Manish Verna (2000) Fasts And Festivals of India: Delhi: Diamond Pocket books (P) Ltd.

Shobhna, Gupta (2002) Festivals of India: Postak Mahol Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.

S.P. Bansal (2004) Lord Rama: Dehli: Diamond Pocket books (P) Lyd.

S.P. Sharma, Seema Gupta (2006) Fairs and festivals of India: Unfolding the colourful heritage of India: Pustak, Mahal,Delhi.

Sterling Press Pvt. Ltd.(2002) Ramayana. Reprint 2008.

Usha, Sharma (2008) Festivals In Indian Society (2 vols. Set): Mittal Publications.

Vālmīki, Manmatha Nath Dutt (1891) The Ramanyana. Volumes 1-2: Calcutta: Printed by Girish, Chandra Chackravarti.

Hein,Norvin (1958) The Ram Lila: New Haven Conneticut: The Journal of American Folklore.

Related Topics

Visnu

Laksmi

Brahma

Krsna

Avatar

Havan

Temple

Ayodhya

Valmiki

Hanuman

Siva

Rsi

Mahabharata

Ravana

Sita

Related Websites

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama_Navami

http://festivals.iloveindia.com/ram-navami/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana

http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/16apa_uk.htm

http://www.yavanika.org/classes/reader/hein.pdf

Article written by Natasha Duke (Spring 2012), who is solely responsible for its content.

Krsna and Radha


Krsna and Radha are known to be the two legendary lovers; their story is believed to be the epitome of true love for devotees. Krsna is depicted as the charismatic and irresistible deity who enchants the gopis (cowherd girls) with his flute playing. Radha is the gopi whom he finds himself most fascinated by (Seth 59). This mutual fascination of each other turns in to a mythic love story which is infamous in Hinduism. Many influential texts have been written to explain this complex relationship. The content differs depending on the author and their interpretation of the Bhagavata Purana [Hindu Puranic text focusing on Krsna]. The most influential text is the poem, Gitagovinda by Jayadeva which focuses on Radha’s jealousy of the other gopis (Majumdar 193). Candidasa is another poet who has written many poems on Krsna and Radha, but his focus is on the obstacles faced by the two lovers (Majumdar 197). Krsna Kirtana, by Ananta Badu Candidasa, is known for its malign and atypical accounts of Krsna (Majumdar 201). It depicts a very distinctive story in which Krsna is depicted as being malevolent. Rupa Gosvamin’s Vidagdhamadhava is a powerful play which enacts the tale of how these two lovers secretly meet while overcoming hurdles (Wulff 45). Krsna and Radha’s relationship also has devotional components generally those between God and devotee.  Radha’s affiliation with Krsna gives her more prominence from worshippers (Hawley & Wulff 70).

Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda

Gitagovinda deals with the bond between the two beloveds over a period of approximately twenty four hours (Majumdar 195).The poem starts with Radha being distressed by her separation from Krsna. She goes on an anxious search for him during a spring night. When she finally finds him, she sees him mingling with the other gopis. Krsna acknowledges Radha and her beauty by giving her recognition over the others. Although he pays her attention, she still feels neglected and insignificant. Radha leaves the setting discontented but not angry. Radha’s love for Krsna is portrayed as being so strong that although his actions were unjust, she cannot be angry at him. In a state full of sorrow, she confides in a friend and asks to find a plan that would allow her to unite with her beau. On the other end of the line, Krsna finds himself feeling remorseful over what he has done. He starts to imagine Radha moving in front of him and begs her for forgiveness, promising never to neglect her again (Majumdar 193-194).

Radha’s friend notifies Krsna of her condition and Krsna tells her to console Radha and to tell her that he is also feeling the pain of separation. This message is delivered to Radha and she waits impatiently for him to come meet her. As time passes, and Krsna does not show up, Radha begins to suspect that he might have forgotten about her and gone to another mate (Majumdar 194). “She, therefore, prays that her life may be taken away by the five arrows of Cupid”; the night passes with these thoughts running through Radha’s mind (Majumdar 194). At the crack of dawn, Krsna finally appears and falls at her feet but she does not accept his apology, thinking he has been unfaithful. She tells him to go back to the lady whom he spent the night with. When Krsna leaves, Radha regrets her actions. Krsna and Radha’s mutual friend plays matchmaker again and advise her to accept Krsna (Majumdar 194). Krsna comes to meet Radha again and he assures her that “she is his ornament, and she is his very life” (Majumdar 194). “He assures her that no other woman has got any place in his heart. He goes so far as to suggest that Radha should place her feet on his head and thus alleviate the pain he is suffering from” (Majumdar 194). A reunion of the pair ends the renowned poem.

Candidasa’s Poems

The various works of Candidasa depict Radha having blind love for Krsna, to the extent that his affiliation with the other gopis do not affect her to the degree that they did to Jayadeva’s Radha.  Although she is married, she does not care if her acts are ethical or unethical :

“Dearest! Thou art my life. To Thee have I surrendered my body and mind, my life and my honour. Immersing my limbs and my thoughts in thy love have I consecrated at thy feet. Thou are my lord. Thour are my destiny. Nothing else appeals to me. People call me fallen, I do not grieve at it. To put on for thee the necklace of bad name is my greatest happiness. Loyal or disloyal, thou knowest all. I know not good or evil. At thy feet, says Candidasa, sin and virtue are both the same think” (Majumdar 197)

In one of his poems, Candidaser Padavali, Radha’s unconditional love for her mate is illustrated through the morning union of the two. Krsna arrives to meet Radha “with marks of teeth and nails of the lady with whom he spent the night” (Majumdar 197).Radha does not scold him in any way; rather, she shows him compassion and offers to look after him. This selfless act puts Krsna to humiliation and he is mesmerized by her (Majumdar 197).

Multiple poems by Candidasa are dedicated to the various disguises taken by Krsna while trying to meet Radha in secrecy. Krsna takes on the disguise of “a magician, a peddler woman, a female barber, a nun, a garlandmaker and a physician to a hoodwink the inmates of the family of Radha’s husband” (Majumdar 197).The latter disguise is so successful that even Radha fails to unfold it.

In Candidasa’s work, the pain Krsna feels from the distance between Radha and himself is also exemplified. At one point, he is so upset that he declares to Radha’s grandmother that he would welcome death if it would end his torment. He goes as far as to asking her to cremate his dead body near the route which Radha takes while drawing water in the morning and afternoon (Majumdar 198).

Ananta Badu Candidasa’s Krsna-Kirtana

This text is regarded as being one of the most controversial poems recounting the chronicles of the duo. “Nowhere else in the whole range on Indian literature has Krsna been vilified so much as in this poem” (Majumdar 201). Radha is revealed to be around the age of eleven in this poem while Krsna who is her senior by two or three years is portrayed as a young boy around the age of fourteen (Majumdar 202).

Krsna hears about Radha’s beauty from her aunt and orders her “to play the part of a procuress” (Majumdar 202). When Radha is approached with the fiendish proposal, she slaps her aunt. This news is brought back to Krsna and they both devise a plan to take vengeance. The poem describes this plan in detail, which involves Krsna enacting a role of a toll officer under a tree. He intends to seize Radha’s milk products, jewellery, and all her other belongings. He plans to charm her so she falls in love with him and then snub her off as if he has nothing do with her. This scheme is carried out and Krsna succeeds in his exploits (Majumdar 203).

After this incident, Radha refuses to go out to sell milk again but her aunt convinces her to do so by taking another path. While on her way, she sees Krsna on a boat and is forced to accept Krsna’s offer to float to her destination. Halfway, the boat starts to leak and Krsna advises “her to throw off all her milk and even her apparels so that the burden on the boat might become light” (Majumdar 203). Taking full advantage of the situation, he also demands that Radha kiss him so he gets the strength to carry on. Considering the circumstances, Radha obeys his wicked commands, causing further distress upon Radha. Krsna drowns the boat and starts to take advantage of her in the water. Not allowing him to take further advantage from her, Radha orders him to return her ornaments and he agrees. Realizing that she has a bit of control over him, she asks him to “carry her goods on his shoulders” (Majumdar 203). This is seen as being a demeaning work for Krsna and Radha’s purpose to put Krsna to shame is accomplished. However, Krsna agrees to all her commands “on condition of getting physical enjoyment” (Majumdar 204).

Ananta Badu Candidasa’s interpretation of Krsna and his intimate relationship is very different from those of other poets. Krsna “has been depicted throughout the book as a gross sensualist, spiteful in nature and boastful of his prowess” (Majumdar 205). The events in Krsna Kirtana are more based on the vision of the author rather than being in compliance with the events from the Bhagavata Purana (Majumdar 201).

Rupa Gosvamin’s Vidagdhamadhava

In this play, Gosvamin brings to life the “love of Radha and Krsna from its first awakening to the first meeting of the couple” (Majumdar 212). Radha is married to Abhimanyu who spends most of his time out of town. Radha is left at home with his blind mother, Jatila. This allows the two lovers, Krsna and Radha, to meet. Abhimanyu’s mother is suspicious of Radha’s relationship with Krsna who she refers to as the “snake toward young women” (Wulff 45).

At one point of the play, Abhimanyu starts to suspect Radha to the point that he decides to take his wife and mother with him. Finding this unbearable, “Krsna dressed himself as the goddess Gauri and placed himself in her temple, where Radha came to meet him” (Majumdar 212). During the couple’s union in the temple, Abhimanyu and his mother, Jatila suddenly appear. Abhimanyu and Jatila are told by the other individuals present at the temple that Gauri was so impressed by Radha’s devotion that she appeared in human form while she was asking for a “boon” (Majumdar 212). This makes Abhimanyu curious as to what exactly Radha was asking for. Krsna then appears as Durga and says that “Radha was praying for the aversion of a terrible calamity which was going to overtake her husband” (Majumdar 212). Krsna elaborates stating that Abhimanyu’s boss has plans to kill him. This leaves the mother and son awfully concerned; Krsna then offers them a solution which involves Radha staying at their hometown and worshipping Durga. Fearing Abhimanyu’s life, Jatila and her son agree to the condition (Majumdar 212). This incident is one of the many cunning ways Krsna keeps Radha close to himself.

Devotional Aspects of Krsna and Radha

Krsna is depicted as the god figure while Radha is portrayed as being the soul (Seth 59). Through Radha’s devotion to Krsna, “she becomes the mediator of his grace (prasada) and compassion (krpa)” (Hawley & Wulff 69). Krsna sends his love to his devotees through Radha and thus she is also worshipped alongside Krsna. In the Brahmavaivarta [One of the eighteen major Puranas], Krsna states that he will not grant moksa ( liberation) to anyone who does not honor Radha because her worship is more satisfying to him than his own (Hawley & Wulff 69).  Radha is also depicted as being an ideal devotee. The intensity of her undying love is seen as a model for followers. In many poems by various poets, including those mentioned above, Radha declares that she would choose death over separation from Krsna (Hawley & Wulff 29). Radha (devotee) is completely dedicated and attached to Krsna (God)


References and Further Recommended Reading

Hawley, John Stratton & Gosvami, Shrivatsa (1992) At Play with Krishna. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.

Hawley, John Stratton & Wulff, Donna Marie (1982) The Divine Consort:Radha and Goddesses of India. California: Graduate Theological Union.

Keyt, George (1940) Sri Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda: The Loves of Krsna & Radha.Bombay: Kutub-Popular Pvt. Ltd.

Kinsley, David R. (1979) The Divine Player (A Study of Krsna Lila).Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.

Klaiman, M.H. (1984)Baru Candidasa Singing the Glory of Lord Krishna. California: Scholars Press and the American Academy of Religion.

Majumdar, Bimanbehari (1969) Krsna in History and Legend. Calcutta, India: Calcutta University Press.

Mukhopadhyay, Durgadas (1990) In Praise of Krishna: Translation of Gitagovinda of Jayadeva. Delhi, India: B.R. Publishing Corporation.

Redington, James D. (1983) Vallabhacarya on The Love Games of Krsna. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.

Sanford, A. Whitney (1961) Singing Krishna: Sound Becomes Sight in Paramanand’s Poetry. New York: State University of New York Press.

Seth, Kailash Nath (2002) Gods and Goddesses of India. New Delhi, India: Diamond Pocket Books Pvt. Ltd.

Wilkins, W.J. (1975) Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Puranic. New Delhi, India: Rupa & Co.

Wulff, Donna M. (1984) Drama as a Mode of Religious Realization: The Vidagdhamadhava of Rupa Gosvami. Chico, California: Scholars Press.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Bhagavata Purana

Gaudiya Vaisnavism

Gopis

Hare Krsna

Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda

Krsna Janmashtami

Krsnaism

Mathura

Radhastami

Ras Lila

Rupa Gosvamin

Vidagdhamadhava

Vishnu

Vrindavan

Yamuna

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/lovelegends.htm

http://www.holifestival.org/legend-radha-krishna.html

http://www.iloveindia.com/spirituality/goddesses/radha/legends.html

Article written by: Maria Rana (April 2010) who is solely responsible for its content.

Jayadeva and the Gitagovinda


Among the myriad of Indian epic poets, Jayadeva, the twelfth century composer of the unparalleled Gitagovinda (Song of the Cowherd), stands alone as a poet of paramount prominence. As a fervent devotee of Krsna, there is a strong undercurrent of Vaisnava faith (the worship of Visnu or his associated avatars, principally as Rama and Krsna, as the original and supreme God) and bhakti (loving devotion) in his articulation as he sings of the mystical amours between Krsna and Radha. As Jayadeva elaborates the love of this cosmic duo, he creates an aesthetic atmosphere of sringararasa or erotic-mystical mood that is bliss for the devotees of Krsna. Indeed, the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, divinely adorned and devotionally oriented, is a source of religious inspiration in both medieval and contemporary Vaisnavism [for a detailed analysis of Vaisnavism, see Dimock (1966)].

The widely renowned lyrical composition and religious eroticism of the Gitagovinda earned sainthood for Jayadeva, and has been a powerful influence on several genres of creative and performing arts in various parts of India. It is the incredibly vivid imagery of this devotional text finds itself as an ideal subject for India’s visual and performing arts (Kaminsky 2). It is Jayadeva’s intent, not only to rouse the devotional depths of the bhakta (those engaged in devotional worship or bhakti), but to transport one literally into the heart of the love scene. The sensory imagery of Jayadeva’s poetry allows the reader or devotee to be a honey bee on a lotus blossom: seeing, touching, smelling the flora and fauna of the enchanting Indian forest. One gets close enough to “taste the sweat glistening on the upper lip of the young maiden [Radha]”(Kaminsky 2), experiencing the beatific delights of sporting with her lover. The jingling of the bells draping Radha’s waist titillates and tantalizes the soul’s inner ear as the reader sways with the melodious motion of their lovemaking. For the bhakta, it is in the union of this woman and the deity in the form of a man that the soul can find a path to oneness with the cosmic essence of the divine [on the depiction of tangible and intangible elements in Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda, see Mahapatra (2008)].

The birth and life of Jayadeva are masked in the various legends and regional paeans of the provinces of West Bengal and Orissa, each province claiming him to be their own (Kaminsky 24). Indeed, after completing the Gitagovinda, such was Jayadeva’s fame and eminence, that numerous local versions of this legend grew into disagreeing traditions about Jayadeva’s origin and poetic activity. Contemporary scholars of Bengal, Orissa, and Mithila have published claims locating the hamlet of his birthplace in their respective regions. Indeed, two strong traditions say that “Kindubilva” mentioned in the Gitagovinda is either a village near Puri in Orissa or a village in the modern Birbhum district of Bengal. A third tradition recognizes the village of Kenduli near Jenjharpur in Mithila as Jayadeva’s place of birth (Miller 3-5). Sources are ambiguous on whether or not he wrote the Gitagovinda while he was the court poet of Laksmanasena Kam, the last Hindu king of Bengal (1179-1209) (Siegel 209-210), but it is generally accepted that after the completion of the Gitagovinda, Jayadeva and his wife went on a pilgrimage to Vrndavana.  For now, it is relatively safe to say that Jayadeva resided and wrote in eastern India during the latter half of the twelfth century (Miller 4).

Despite the difference in opinion of Jayadeva’s origin, all accounts that sanctify Jayadeva’s life reveal that he was born into a Brahman family and that he became a gifted student of Sanskrit and a skilled poet. In spite of this, he abandoned scholarship at a young age and assumed an ascetic life, devoting himself entirely to God. As a wandering poet and mendicant, he would not rest underneath the same tree for more than a night for fear that attachment to the place would breach his vow of asceticism (Miller 3).

His life of renunciation and denial came to an end when a Brahman in Puri (in Orissa along the eastern coast of India) claimed that the god Jagannatha, “Lord of the World” [Jagannatha is considered to be a form of Visnu, although some scholars maintain that Jagannatha was Buddha (also considered by Hindus to be the 9th avatara or incarnation of Visnu). Others assert that he is really Krsna, the 8th of Visnu’s avataras. For a more detailed analysis of Jagannatha see, Raya (1998)] himself had ordained the marriage of Jayadeva to the Brahman’s daughter. The Brahman’s daughter was Padmavati, a young girl who was dedicated as a devadasi (religious dancing girl who gave praise to the gods and shared the tales of their greatness through dance for devotees) in the temple. Jayadeva agreed to the marriage. Padmavati served her husband and he shared her devotion to Jagannatha. As Jayadeva composed, Padmavati would dance — whence came the inspiration for the Gitagovinda (Kaminsky 25).

While composing the Gitagovinda, Jayadeva envisioned the climax of Krsna’s supplication to Radha as a command for Radha to place her foot on Krsna’s head in a symbolic gesture of victory. But the poet was reluctant to complete the couplet, in respect to Krsna, which would place Radha in a position superior to that of Krsna, as well as commit an ancient taboo of touching anyone with the foot –a symbol of spiritual pollution (juta). Leaving the poem incomplete, Jayadeva went to bathe in a river and, as the story goes, in his absence Krsna appeared in his guise to complete the couplet; Krsna then ate the food Padmavati had prepared for Jayadeva and left. When Jayadeva returned, he realized that he had received divine affirmation in exalting Krsna’s loving relation to Radha.

The Gitagovinda, deceptively simple in its exterior beauty, that is, in its exotic and sensual crust, has an abundance of meaning embedded in structurally complex forms. It is expressed as a sequence of songs interspersed with recitative portions in cadenced forms of classical kavya verses (classi­cal Sanskrit verse) (Miller 7). There are twelve main parts which can be referred to as cantos, divisions of a long poem. The Sanskrit term for this is sargah and will be used from this point on. Within each sargah are short narratives and songs, and each song has a particular tala and raga associated with it. Talas are rhythmic cycles which lie beneath the structure of an Indian musical piece and a raga is a melodic form that evokes a particular mood, most of which are selected for specific times of day, year, weather conditions, emotional states. These states of emotion are known as rasa (Kaminsky 46-47).

Several types of Indian dance and vocal music tell the legends of Radha and Krsna through these musical modes and rhythmic cycles. As it has been generally acknowledged that Jayadeva was inspired by the religious dancing of his wife, this is a likely explanation for the melodic structure of the Gitagovinda (Kaminsky 47).

While dramatizing the amours of Krsna and Radha on the surface, the Gitagovinda simultaneously conveys the deep ethos of devotion of the individual soul, its yearning for God realization and finally achieving the consummation in service of God. Or again: outwardly it describes the love, separation, longing and union of Radha and Krsna, the cosmic duo, in the mystical forest, Vrindavan, along the bank of river Yamuna. But metaphysically it expresses the pining of the individual soul (jivatma) for the mystical union with the divine soul (paramatma). Indeed, in the words of one scholar: “through the thrilling love episode of Radha and Krsna, the poet Jayadeva takes us stage by stage to the highest pitch of God consciousness and God realization” (Tripathy 5).

Indeed, while the poem’s subject is the estrangement of Radha and Krsna caused by Krsna’s dalliances with the other gopies (cowherd girl), Radha’s anguish at Krsna’s abandonment, and the rapture which attends their final reunion, the poem reverts repeatedly to devotion of Krsna as God:

If in recalling Krsna to mind there is flavour

Or if there is interest in loves art

Then to this necklace of words–sweetness, tenderness,

Brightness–

The words of Jayadeva, listen ( Miller 69).

In fact, Jayadeva’s objective is inducing “recollection of Krsna in the minds of the good” (Archer 65) and inserts a vivid description of the Indian forest in springtime exclusively, he says, in order once again to stir up remembrance Krsna. When, at last, the poem has come elatedly to a close, Jayadeva again insists the reader to adore and venerate Krsna and “place him forever in their hearts, Krsna the source of all merit” (Archer 65).

The story of the Gitagovinda may be briefly told. The poem opens with a description of the occasion when Radha and Krsna first join in love together:

“Clouds thicken the sky.

Tamala trees darken the forest.

The night frightens him.

Radha, you take him home!”

They leave at Nanda’s order,

Passing trees in thickets on the way,

Until secret passions of Radha and Madhava [the epithet of Krsna which also means “honey like” and “vernal”]

Triumph on the Jumna riverbank (Miller 69).

In this way the love of Radha and Krsna arises — the love which is to govern their hearts with ever growing fervour. Next, the reader, or the devotee, is captivated by Krsna and Radha’s surroundings: the trees are lush and thick with leaves, and flowering creepers are intertwined within their branches–symbolic of the lovers’ embrace. Spring is fully aroused, the birds are lively, love is ripe in the air. The couple are dressed in splendid colours of gold, red, and yellow and they are draped in gold and pearls.

Krsna is the eighth avatara (incarnation) of Visnu, and the first sargah continues with the heart touching, vivid and melodious account of the ten incarnations based on the evolutionary process of the creation and development of the animal world, each of which “came to the rescue” in various ways. According to the Srimad Bhagavad Gita, when virtue subsides and vice prevails, God manifests himself to establish righteousness [It is on this that the theory of incarnations of God is based, see Tripathy 5-9].

The poem then leaps a period of time and when the drama opens, a crises has occurred. Radha, after long enjoying Krsna’s passionate embraces, finds herself abruptly abandoned. Radha‘s friend, sakhi, tells her of Krsna’s amorous play with the other gopies, his feet stroked by one of them, his head cushioned on the bosom of another whose “heaving breasts are tenderly outspread to pillow it” (Miller 76). One beautiful damsel murmurs sweet words of praise into his ear, others care for him tenderly. He himself embraces one of them, kisses another and fondles a third (Archer 93).

As Radha broods on his behaviour, she is filled with bitter sadness; Radha’s yearning and lamenting in a faltering voice choked by heavy tears made even the water birds weep sorrowfully (Miller 1975: 659-665). Yet her love for Krsna is so strong she cannot bring herself to blame him. Radha’s pain of separation (viraha) from Krsna draws her interest away from worldly concerns and leads to meditation on Krsna which is the essence of bhakti that leads to the attainment of spiritual union with Krsna who is the quintessence of divinity (Siegel 66). It is Radha’s intuitive, unfaltering, all-inclusive dedication to union with Krsna which serves as a paradigm for many followers of bhakti. In this sense, one scholar has commented: “the pain of separation from the divine is in itself a source for joy as it encourages, or forces, one to meditate on the qualities with which one longs to unite” (Kaminsky 27).

As Radha sits longing for him in misery, Krsna suddenly repents, is filled with remorse and abruptly goes in quest of her. He does not know, however, where to find her and as he wanders he expresses his grief. The third Sargah reveals Krsna as he searches for Radha and laments:

She saw me surrounded in the crowd of women

And went away

I was too ashamed,

Too afraid to stop her.

Damn me! My wanton ways

Made her leave in anger (Miller 82).

Seated alone in his arbor of love, Krsna dwells on the thought of his devotee, Radha, and presently Sakhi comes to him to assure him of her passionate love for him. Without him she cannot bear to live, for every moment is filled with suffering and misery. Surely he, the source of love, will respond to her need.

It is well into the evening, the crescent moon in the sky. It looks as if Krsna will spend the night alone in misery. It is said that because of her ego, the Lord, Krsna was kept away. Due to Radha’s jealousy, or impure thoughts, Krsna, as the divine, is unable to reach her (Greenlees xvi). The idea here is that without ego, one is released to accept god’s grace.

Then, well into the darkness of the night, Sakhi finally convinces Radha to overcome her jealousy and pride which have been keeping her apart from her beloved. The scene is exceedingly dark, but the rushing Yamuna river coming from between the feminine curves of the undulating hills can be seen. Sakhi coaxes Radha to enter the bower of Krsna who sits in anticipation. In this way, Sakhi is like the guru who is responsible for uniting the human soul with the Divine (Kuppuswamy 41):

Loosen your clothes, until your belt, open your loins!

Radha, your gift of delight is like treasure in a bed of vines.

In woods on the wind-swept Jumna bank,

Krsna waits in wildflower garlands (Miller 93).

Krsna is splendid in his brilliance. His gold and pearl jewellery, white floral garland, and the white of his eyes brighten the darkness and provoke Radha to come to him. Now, Radha becoming less timid raises her eyes to meet those of Krsna. One can get a sense of an impending passionate unite.

The subsequent stanzas of the poem then reveal a reversal of devotion. Krsna asks Radha to place her feet on his head and declares his devotion to her. God is expressing his dedication to the human soul. Or as later Vaisnava texts have revealed, Radha is actually a goddess sprung from Krsna’s divineness (Kaminsky 49).

To the delight of the reader, or devotee, the lonely night ends with the ecstatic reunion (samyoga) of the lovers. The entire twelfth sargah offers the reader the full flavour of the ecstatic reunion of Radha and Krsna:

When her friend had gone

Smiles spread on Radha’s lips

While love’s deep fantasies

Struggled with her modesty

Seeing the mood in Radha’s heart,

Hari spoke to his love;

Her eyes were fixed

On his bed of buds and tender shoots (Miller 122).

Jayadeva continues:

[Radha’s] beautiful loins are a deep cavern to take the thrusts of love–

Cover them with jewelled girdles, clothes, and ornaments, Krsna! (Miller 124).

Finally Radha, the individual soul (jivatma), has achieved union with Krsna, the divine soul (paramatma).  Then with a final remembrance of Krsna as God and celebration of the song itself — its words “sweeter than sugar, like loves own glorious flavour” — the poem ends.

The dramaturgy and the poetics in the Gitagovinda have been skilfully crafted to touch the innermost core of the disciple and inspire the noblest of emotions. For this reason it is a literary legacy of India. Its spiritual essence, mystical imports, erotic undertones, sensory imagery and lyrical fluidity have perplexed critics, bewildered scholars, mystified saints, enthralled lovers, enlightened devotees and engaged people at large emotionally and sentimentally. Jayadeva, through his mystical love songs, has brought to light the strong desire of individuals for communion with divinity, and this mysticism has created extensive philosophical and metaphysical connotations that have had a profound influence on the religious outlook and spiritual psyche of devotees.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Archer, W.G (1957) The Loves of Krsna in Indian Painting and Poetry. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Dimock. E. C (1966) The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava- sahajiya Cult of Bengal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Greenlees, Duncan (1979) The song of divine love: Gita-Govinda of Sri Jayadeva. Madras: Kalakshetra Publications.

Kaminsky, Alison M (1988) Radha: The Blossoming of Indias Flower in art and Literature. PhD diss., Long Beach: California State University.

Kuppuswamy, Gowri and Muthuswamy Hariharan (1980) Jayadeva and Gītagōvinda: a study. Michigan: College Book House.

Mahapatra, Gadadhar (2008) “Depiction of Tangible and Intangible Elements of Nature in Gita Govinda Kavyam.” Orissa Review 14.10, pp. 22-27.

Miller, Barbara Stoler (1975) “Radha: Consort of Krsna’s Vernal Passion.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 95.4.

Miller, Barbara Stoler (1977) The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva: Love Song of the Dark Lord. New York: Columbia University Press.

Raya, Bidyutlata (1998) Jagannātha cult: origin, rituals, festivals, religion, and philosophy. Michigan: Kant Publications.

Siegel, Lee (1978) Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love in Indian Traditions as Exemplified in the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Avatara

Bhakti

Brahman

Devadasis

Gopi

Guru

Jagannatha

Jagannatha temple

Jivatma

Juta

Kavya

Krsna

Laksmanasena Kam

Orissa

Parematma

Radha

Raga

Rasa

Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Tala

Vasnavism

Visnu

Yamuna river

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.geetagovinda.org/Jayadev.html

http://www.goloka.com/docs/gita_govinda/index.html

http://www.poetry-chaikhana.com/J/Jayadeva/index.htm

http://vodpod.com/watch/84037-kelucharan-mohapatra-orissi-dance-gita-govinda

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BNcIjWTwBo&feature=PlayList&p=2CEA33B0D977D011&index=2

Article written by: Stephenie Madany (April 2010) who is solely responsible for its content.

Rama

The Hindu epics are a source of entertainment and religious guidance. Today, Rama, the titular character of the Hindu epic, The Ramayana, is seen as the ideal man, who follows dharma to rigid perfection. The Ramayana, one of the two great Hindu epics, continues to have great significance today, despite being originally composed approximately two thousand years ago. While there are thousands of variations of the epic across southern Asia, its original authorship is attributed to the sage Valmiki, who lived sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD. Rama, who is married to the ideal woman, Sita, is portrayed and celebrated today as enacting true dharma in his role as son, brother, husband and member of the ksatriya class. He is also recognized as the “incarnation of Visnu in his role as Supreme God” (Gonzalez-Reimann 203).

The Ramayana is an epic that contains over 20,000 verses. Within these verses are the adventures surrounding Rama, son of King Dasaratha of Ayodhya, and heir to its throne. Laksmana, Rama’s half-brother and inseparable companion accompanies the hero throughout his many adventures. Both Laksmana and Sita, Rama’s wife, accompany him into a fourteen-year exile to the forests, during which the trio meet with various sages, encounter and defeat demons, and learn the ways of a forest-dweller. Much of Rama’s tale centers on his rescue of Sita from Ravana, a ten headed raksasas. While Rama’s adventures within The Ramayana provide entertainment, it is his action and philosophical reasoning that provide Hindus with direction in regard to dharma.

Rama is portrayed as one who is the “embodiment of…infinite virtues” (Bhattacharji 32). He is the obedient son, ready to “give up the throne and go into exile to redeem his father’s pledge” (Bhattacharji 43). Rama displays great love and faith in his brothers, trusting that Bharata would adhere to duty, caring for his throne during his banishment, and eventually restoring him. Rama’s love for even his wife Sita “became subsidiary and insignificant in comparison with love for the brother” (Bhattacharji 36). Living as a forest-dweller, he killed demons to protect sages, for “as a prince he was obligated to exercise the protective function of the warrior class” (Goldman 34). Ruler of Ayodhya for 11,000 years after his banishment, Rama “was a true warrior hero with a strict code of heroism” (Bhattacharji 43).

Large Rama Statue, Bali

Rama’s fame for his goodness has led to an expectation among readers and followers that he is pure, and acts righteously in all circumstances. Supported and “reinforced by scholars who have…their own expectations” (Stewart et al. 244) of Rama, it is often the case that Rama is seen as a flat divinity, one that is non-complex: he is good, therefore he is dharmic. This however is not the case; Rama is complex, whether portrayed as man or as god incarnate, and strays from the righteous path from time to time. Rama’s slaying of the monkey king Vali from behind a tree “violated the fundamental law of combat by striking at the enemy from behind” (Bhattacharji 36). In killing from behind, undercover, and an individual whom Rama had had no personal conflict with, he sacrificed the ksatriya codes of honor to increase his chances of finding Sita.

Although Sita, as the ideal woman, follows her dharma and willingly stays at her husband’s side and places her complete faith, love and allegiance with him. Rama does not do his wife justice, frequently disregarding Sita’s love for him. He fails to protect her from physical harm and dishonor. Upon his rescue of her, his main goal, he reveals, was not to rescue his beloved wife, “but to ensure the piety of his… lineage” (Bhattacharji 40). Despite unshakeable proof of Sita’s chastity, Rama abandons and humiliates her three times, doubting her devotion to him.

During the rare times that Rama strays from the path of dharma, it is often for his own personal gain and image. Rama kills Vali to gain the help of the monkey king to find Sita, and avenge his tarnished image. He belittles Sita, viewing her as tainted, something that he can no longer enjoy. For his personal and family honor, he doubts her purity thrice, despite receiving ample proof and being reproached by the gods that she has stayed true to Rama alone. While scholars have discussed and critiqued Rama for his cowardly killing of Vali, and his frequent betrayal and abandonment of Sita, no explanation has truly been given that adequately explains these few transgressions from the dharmic path (Goldman 35-36). Despite these few flaws in his righteousness, Rama is still considered today as the example of the ideal man, the incarnate of the god Visnu.

Visnu is one of the most prominent gods in the Hindu tradition. Within Hinduism, Visnu has a tradition of returning to earth in varying incarnations or avatars to carry out or ameliorate dharmic situations. Rama, who, throughout the epic continuously acts dharmically, kills the demon Ravana near the end of the story. This, according to Gonzalez-Reimann, is the main reason for Rama’s assumed divinity within Valmiki’s Ramayana. Rama’s incarnation as “the great god Narayana…Visnu, Krsna and Prajapati” (Gonzalez-Reimann 208) creates an identity that is a “combination of man and god” (Gonzalez-Reimann 210). As an avatara of Visnu, Rama embodies the “protector of society and brahmanical dharma”(Gonzalez-Reimann 207). Because Rama is the representation of dharmic action, and because he is associated with the god Visnu in this way, like Visnu himself (who has a group of followers dedicated primarily to him), Rama today has an important role in some forms of Hindu worship.

Built into the very social structure of society, the Hindu practice of renunciation lays the path to knowing and awareness of the Self and moksa. The practice of devotionalism, or bhakti, can and does take many forms within Hinduism, varying from elaborate to simple offerings, or prayers. Devotionalism can be given to a single or multiple deities. Ram bhakti, which is a movement that was founded by Swami Ramananda in the 16th century, attempts to gain liberation from bondage by transferring “emotional attachments…to the spiritual realm”(Lamb 582). Of the numerous religious texts that have been written on the topic, none have been quite so influential as Tulsidas’ Ramcharitmanas. A revision of Valmiki’s The Ramayana, the text is immensely popular, and “has ultimately set the tenor for Ram bhakti…providing ideal examples for family and society relationships, for righteous action, and for selfless devotion” (Lamb 580). Followers of Ram bhakti show devotionalism through the chanting of prayers or repetition of Rama’s name. Ultimately, the relationship aspired to between devotees and the Divine is paralleled to the relationship of Rama and Hanuman; the relationship “is one of Ram[a] as lord and master” (Lamb 582).

The main character and hero of Valmiki’s The Ramayana, Rama is the righteous prince of Ayodhya, whom, accompanied by his brother and wife, has many adventures in both fictitious and actual places. Acting always in the right, Rama gives an example to modern followers of the correct way to follow dharma. Despite some of his actions being critiqued as unrighteous and morally wrong in today’s world, such actions were more or less seen as socially acceptable at the time of the epic’s composition, and Rama is still seen as the ideal man, in part due to his role as an incarnation of Visnu. Based on this fact, religious orders such as Ram bhakti have been fashioned after Rama’s example. Despite being created thousands of years ago, Rama still has relevance today, providing entertainment, rules of social etiquette, and religious prescriptions for people around the globe.

Bibliography and Related Readings

Bhattacharji, Sukumari. “A Revaluation of Valmiki’s ‘Rama.’” Social Scientist. 30.½ (2002), pp. 31-49.

Goldman, Robert P. The Ramayana Revisited. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Gonzalez-Reimann, Luis. “The Divinity of Rama in the Ramayana of Valmiki.”Journal of Indian Philosophy. 34.1 (2006), pp. 203-220.

Lamb, Ramdas. “Devotion, Renunciation, and Rebirth in the Ramananda Sampraday.” Crosscurrents. Winter (2007), pp. 578-590.

Stewart, Tony K. and Dimock, Edward C. (2001) “Krttibasa’s Apophatic Critique of Rama’s Kingship.” Questioning Ramayanas. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Related Topics

Visnu

Avatara

Sita

Bhakti

Valmiki

Dharma

Ayodhya

Tulsidas

Swami

Ramananda

Sadhana

Ravana

Raksasas

Hanuman

Vali

Laksmana

Ksatriya

Vanaprastha

Lanka

Samnyasin

Related Websites

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama

http://www.valmikiramayan.net/

http://www.cs.ucdavis.edu/~vemuri/classes/freshman/RamayanaSynopsis.htm

Written by Lara Ulrich (Spring 2009), who is solely responsible for its content.

Krsna


As a manifestation of Visnu, Krsna is the creator of his creatures, while also the loving god to his devotees (Sheth 77). Krsna has been called Brahman, the most supreme, the highest self, and the highest bliss, among others (Sheth 80). He has been referred to as a manifestation, or avatara also of Narayana, “Lord of the Universe”. Narayana is another name for Visnu or the original man, purusa. Krsna is one of the two more famous avatars of Visnu, Rama being the other. Krsna is probably more popular than Rama, however, as he fulfills almost every human need. As the divine child, he satisfies the maternal instincts of womanhood. As the divine lover, he gives romantic fulfillment and freedom of sexual expression. He can even save the sinner from evil rebirths (Schweig 16). Although considered by some to be an incarnation of Visnu, Krsna stands alone due to his unusual adoration (Bhandarkar 59).

Krsna’s life spanned from around 3228 BCE to 3102 BCE, according to scriptural documentation (Rosen 124). The earliest mention of Krsna is found in the Chandogya-upanisad (Majumdar 2). He appeared in Mathura, India and spent his youth as a cowherd or gopa in the nearby Northern village of Gokula. He lived with his ‘father’, Nanda, the ruler of the village, along with his ‘mother’ Yasoda and his brother Balarama (Hudson 5). This is where Krsna’s first mischievous yet endearing thieveries took place (Rosen 130). Krsna is also portrayed in texts such as the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu-purana and the Bhagavata-purana. The Harivamsa portrays Krsna as a hero while the Visnu-purana and the Bhagavata-purana portray him as divine (Sheth 43). Some view Krsna as a deity while others view him as a prince who was deified. Some believe he is a real historical person (Majumdar 279) and others as an Indian form of Christ (Couture 38).

Vaisnavism is said to be the most strictly theistic among traditions within the Hindu complex as it claims devotion, or bhakti as both a means and an end. Vaisnavism is the term used for all the devotional traditions dedicated to the worship of Visnu and his avatars (Schweig 15). Vaisnavism was first called Ekantika Dharma, the religion of a single-minded love and devotion to one. It appeared as a religious reform based on theistic principles (Bhandarkar 142). More and more elements have been added to Vaisnavism over time such as the worship of the cowherd boy, Krsna, because of his marvelous deeds and amorous frolicking with the cowherdesses, or gopis. He then came to be regarded as a god and another element was added: the worship of Krsna along with his mistress Radha (Bhandarkar 143). Some Vaisnava groups view Krsna as the source of Visnu and not as a manifestation (Rosen 124).

Someone in full Krsna consciousness uses everything for Krsna’s service and is always liberated from false egoism (Prabhupada 93). The devotee desires nothing for himself but can seek prosperity for others as this is what the Lord wants. (Hudson 25). Schweig calls the devotion to Krsna “theistic intimacy” as Krsna is a god that presents his closest or innermost relationships of love (14). It is significant that what Krsna devotees desire is not moksa (liberation), not freedom from entanglement in samsara, the cycle of repeated births, but continuous “entanglement” in Krsna. They want nothing more than to serve him intimately forever, even if such intimate service may depend upon their own continuous rebirth with him rather than upon release (Hudson 9). Even when the gopis do not purify themselves through ritual bathing or proper actions before rushing to offer themselves to him, Krsna still receives them because it is their intense longing for him that causes their behavior. Receiving the gopis turns all their past and future faults to cotton that will burn up and leave no trace behind (Hudson 26). All devotees seek to emulate the gopis’ pure and consummate devotion to Krsna (Rosen 122).

Krsna is frequently depicted with his female counterpart, Goddess Radha (Schweig 15). Radha has been called the supreme goddess. She embodies all the gopis and all other goddesses. Although Krsna has intimate relationships with all the gopis, Radha is a special gopi; she is Krsna’s supreme gopi (Schweig 19). Many devotees of Krsna worship Radha with him. Their relationship is said to be light, playful, and amusing, leaving out work, worry and anger (Kinsley 84).

If there is one god that is more playful than the others, it is Krsna. Krsna is often called a ‘playful lover’ and he is often engaged in playful actions. Krsna’s actions are called play, or lila, because he is completely fulfilled. His actions are not purposeful; they come from an overflowing abundance (Kinsley 1). Sheth attempts to give evidence to Krsna’s divinity by stating that because his actions are pure, purposeless play, Krsna is unlike a finite being (82). He is commonly worshipped in the form of a baby or child, whose very nature is to play (Kinsley 61). As a child, he is known for his mischief, but his misbehavior is unique in that it purifies and heals all who take part in them rather than evoking concern (Rosen 132). Even when wrestling with enemies, Krsna appears as if he is playing (Sheth 84).

Krsna’s maya, which can be defined as the power to change form or an illusion, is used as a veil when in human form so that during encounters with people, they will not treat him like a god but as another human. For example, when Krsna’s parents realized his divinity, he spread maya on them so that they would continue their parental affection for him (Sheth 89). Another power of Krsna’s is that he can destroy, or heal simply with his touch. He can kill enemies or turn someone beautiful just by touching them (Sheth 91). In his Visnu form, Krsna carries four weapons. In two hands, he carries a lotus flower and a conch shell. These are to assure his devotees that they cannot be vanquished. In the other two hands, he carries a club and a disc. These weapons are meant for the non-devotees to bring them to their senses and remind them that there is the Supreme Lord above them (Prabhupada 21). More distinguishing of Krsna, is a bamboo flute held up to his mouth with both arms. He also carries a herding stick and a buffalo horn. Schweig shows the importance of Krsna’s flute by quoting from a Sanskrit poetic verse, the Krishna Karnamrita, that people would wait to hear Krsna play his flute so that om might sound (24).

Krsna is noted to be strikingly beautiful and youthful, and that he is beauty himself. His speech and his odor are equally as beautiful and it is said that one may find Krsna by his irresistible smell (Kinsley 75). In almost every Vaisnave-Krsna work, Krsna’s physical appearance is revered (Kinsley 77). He usually wears a silk, yellow garment, an ornament with a peacock feather on his head, and a garland made of fresh flowers and leaves. He is a deep blue color, frequently compared to a dark raincloud (Schweig 23). Krsna is so beautiful that even though he wears ornaments, it is his body that enhances the ornaments he wears (Rosen 122). Krsna’s charm and beauty are not purposeless however; they are to allure humanity back to the transcendental realm (Rosen 157).

No other figure in the history of Indian culture has given rise to as much controversy as Krsna (Majumdar 1). He is an extremely powerful, playful, and loving god. Krsna is the true friend of all souls because, when he kills, he not only protects his devotees but, he liberates those that he kills (Schweig 23). Krsna gives salvation not only to his devotees, but also to those who hate him (Sheth 77). Krsna is also multi-faceted as seen in texts such as the Mahabharata, where he exhibits qualities of a philosopher, warrior, friend, lord, husband, charioteer, and guru (Rosen 122). In essence, loving Krsna is synonymous with loving God. In Hinduism, even though there is a hierarchy of sorts, the absolute nature of a god and his name are one (Rosen 220). Krsna eventually returned to the spiritual realm after ridding the world of its worst demons and establishing dharma, or righteousness (Rosen 136). His appearance in this world is claimed to be for the benefit of humankind, to remind us of our real life in the spiritual realm (Rosen 125).

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Bhandarkar, Ramkrishna Gopal (1995) Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

Couture, Andre (2002) Krsna’s initiation at Sāndīpani’s hermitage. Numen, 49(1), 37-60. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials database.

Hudson, Dennis (1980) Bathing in Krishna : a study in Vaisnava Hindu theology. Harvard Theological Review, 73(3-4), 539-566. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials database.

Kinsley, David R. (1979) The Divine Player: A Study of Krsna Lila. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Majumdar, Bimanbehari (1969) Krsna in History and Legend. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.

Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1970) Krsna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead. New York: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Hinduism – The Ebook. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online

Books, Ltd.

Rosen, Steven J. (2006) Essential Hinduism. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Schweig, Graham M. (2004) “Krishna, the Intimate Deity.” The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Ed. Edwin F. Bryant & Maria L. Ekstrand. New York: Columbia University Press, 13-30.

Sheth, Noel S.J. (1984) The Divinity of Krishna. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

RELATED TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION

Avatara

Bhagavata Purana

Chandogya Upanisad

Gopa

Gopis

Govinda

Hare Krnsa Movement

Harivamsa

Lila

Mahabharata

Maya

Narayana

Purusa

Radha

Rama

Vaisnavism

Visnu

Visnu Purana

NOTEWORTHY WEBSITED RELATED TO THE TOPIC

www.krishna.com

http://www.pantheon.org/articles/k/krishna.html

http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/krishna.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna

http://krishna.org/

Article written by: Annie Siegrist (March 2009) who is solely responsible for its content.

The Vamana Avatar

The Hindu deity Visnu is said to have had nine avatars with a tenth still to come (McLeish 1). The fifth of these is the Vamana avatar, the dwarf avatar. The dwarf avatar is said to have been of Brahmin nature. Although the avatars are interpreted differently throughout devotional literature; however, all writings address the avatar as being Brahminic in nature (Soifer 114). The reason for the need of avatars is not certain. However, a rationale is provided in the Bhagavad Gita in the words of Krsna “Whenever the dharma withers away and adharma arises, then do I send myself forth. For the protection of good, for the destruction of evil-doers, for the establishment of the dharma do I come into being age after age” (Bhagavad Gita 4.7-8). This statement makes clear that avatars descend to earth to correct the wrong doings and protect the innocent from evil. Visnu’s fifth avatar was no exception from this rule. The dwarf was sent to destroy the forces of Bali. In the thirty different versions of the myth, there at least two which are identical to the other texts (Soifer 113). While there are many versions of the myth, certain elements remain consistent.

The Vamana (Dwarf) Avatara of Visnu (Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi)

All twenty-eight different versions of the myth have small variations, but do not alter the overall meaning. “[I]t would be safe to suggest that nearly any version could be picked and exhibited as ‘typical’” (Soifer 114).The Vedas, the Brahmanas and the Puranas are major texts containing myths of the Vamana avatar. These differences can be put into context by three varying patterns [Deborah Soifer illustrates these three patterns in great detail in her book (114-115); I provide only a brief overview]. The first variance is that Bali is a typical demon, whose desire is to cause havoc and is ignorant of Visnu’s greater power. The second presents a topsy turvey point; Bali is presented as a demon that does good, which is dangerous because he is in violation of Svadharma (one’s own obligatory duty, based on one’s caste, gender, or social position). In the myths containing this skewed view, Bali was able to win heaven by using a boon given to him by Brahma for his sternness. The third variance is that Bali willingly gives his kingdom to the dwarf. This gives a view of the demon’s dependence on the gods of Hinduism. We can correlate these three patterns to time periods using motifs that are present in the myth. The first variance can be linked to the Vedic period, the second to the post-Vedic period, and the third is characteristic of the bhakti period. Having looked at the varying patterns of the myth, we can obtain a greater understanding pertaining to the development of the myth over time.

The purpose of the dwarf avatar is that Visnu had been asked to descend to earth by Indra in order to end king Bali’s reign, and to make the earth less like heaven so that the gods can once again gain control (Soifer 119). The purpose of the dwarf avatar, being Brahminic in nature, appears to be for keeping a logical flow to the myth, because only the Brahmins receive gifts before a sacrifice (Soifer 123). The dwarf’s arrival is at the moment when Bali about to perform a sacrifice, which is when Brahmins are given gifts. The sacrifice differs from myth to myth. In many myths it is said to be an Asvamedha ceremony; others say it was a twelve-year sacrifice. If it were to be an Asvamedha ceremony it would have furthered the significance of Indra asking Visnu to descend to earth. Had Bali been commencing the last of one hundred horse sacrifices he would have become Indra. The dwarf hinders this by going to receive his present from Bali before the sacrifice begins. For his gift he requests three paces of land. In one myth Sukra asks that Bali give nothing to the dwarf, and Bali chooses to ignore his forewarning. In the rest of the myths Sukra conveyed his opinion more strongly. He attempts to prevent the water from being poured onto the dwarf’s hands, which would seal the deal. Going against Sukra’s wishes, Bali makes the deal with the dwarf. In some myths Sukra is so enraged that he curses Bali to lose his kingdom. Once the deal between Bali and the Vamana avatar had been sealed, it is said that the dwarf returns to his gigantic size and steps around the universe in three steps, therefore allowing Bali to keep reign over the underworld. In other myths the dwarf steps around the universe in only two strides and with the last, steps on Bali. An interesting aspect of this myth is that Visnu’s trickery, in playing the role of a dwarf, is never dealt with. Technically this is an Adharmic act on his part, because he has won on a foul. Interestingly, Bali never complains of the loss due to the trickery. Depending on the version of the myth, only Bana, Sukra and Prahlada call foul. Bali readily accepts defeat. (see Soifer 116-119)

The Vamana avatar remains a popular Indian myth; it is a common choice for dance-dramas in many cultures (Bloomsbury Dictionary of Myth). This popularity can be linked to the many versions of this myth. There are varying parts to the myth although the meaning remains the same. While we may not fully understand the significance of certain parts of the myth, it has remained popular and brought further understanding to those who have read it.

References and Further Recommended Readings

Soifer, Deborah (1950) The Myths of Narasimha and Vāmana: 2 Avatars in Cosmological Perspective. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Flick, Hugh M, Jr. (1993) “The Myths of Narasimha and Vāmana: 2 Avatars in Cosmological Perspective.” Asian Folklore Studies 52.1 237-238.

Related topics

Visnu Purana

Avatar

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamana

http://0-www.credoreference.com.darius.uleth.ca/entry.do?id=2121350&hh=1&secid=.

Article written by: Meaghan Lightheart (March 2009) who is solely responsible for its content.

The Lord Krsna

Krsna is possibly one of the most recognizable gods of the Hindu pantheon. He is the playful child, divine lover, and the wise friend, the ever-present beauty in the world. In most common images of him he is depicted with blue skin as a reference to his divine nature and his association with Visnu. Poets and devotees have sung praises of Krsna’s otherworldly grace and beauty. There is nothing that is unworthy of praise as his beauty is all encompassing; it is even said that he was accompanied with a scent so fragrant it was to be irresistible, and that his companions could locate him by it (Kinsley 1975: 24-25). Such is the beauty of Krsna that the goal of devotees is to see him in a vision, or gain a place in his heavenly realm of Vrndavana in their afterlife (Kinsley 1975: 25).

Vrndavana, became the highest heavenly realm of Krsna, but was first his childhood home where the Bhagavata-purana tells how he spent his days in blissful mischief, such as his notorious butter thievery (Kinsley 1975: 14). The shenanigans of Krsna’s childhood reveal the concept of lila. As a child Krsna is compelled to pursue pleasure for pleasure’s sake; it is the innocent pursuit of play for the sake of amusement in itself. He is unrestrained by the perceptions and social boundaries that permeate adulthood, and is therefore able to revel in every desire and impulse to which he feels inclined (Kinsley 1975: 15). Krsna is accepted as a prince, although he was forced into exile for his own security, for fear of his uncle Kamsa (Majumdar 1969: 2). Kamsa was the king of the city of Mathura, and his sister’s name was Devaki. When Devaki was married to a man named Vasudeva, it brought to Kamsa’s mind an old prophecy which spoke of the destruction of his lineage by the eighth child of Devaki. Kamsa became resolved to kill any children born of Devaki, and he had her and her husband locked away. It was then that the fetus of Devaki’s seventh son, was transferred by Visnu into the womb of Vasudeva’s other wife, and it was this son who grew to be Krsna’s brother Balarama. Devaki’s eighth son was smuggled to safety and switched with the daughter of Yasoda and Nanda, two humble cowherds. When Kamsa came to see Devaki’s child, the daughter of Yasoda and Nanda revealed herself as the Goddess, or Devi, and told Kamsa that the eighth child, Krsna, was indeed beyond his reach and would eventually be his undoing (Rodrigues, 313).

Large bas-relief depicting the god Krsna holding aloft Mount Govardhana to protect his fellow cowherds from Indra's thunderstorm; Mahabalipuram, India
Large bas-relief depicting the god Krsna holding aloft Mount Govardhana to protect his fellow cowherds from Indra’s thunderstorm; Mahabalipuram, India

Kamsa sent many demons to destroy Krsna, however many of them became nothing more than new sources of amusement for the young god. In the Bhagavata-purana there is the story of the demoness Putana who comes to Krsna in the guise of a beautiful young woman. She begs the favor of Krsna’s mother Yasoda, in allowing her to suckle the young baby Krsna, which Yasoda grants her. Krsna, however, sees through the façade, and when the demoness takes him to her poison covered breasts, he is untouched by the poison and instead drains out her life (Kinsley 1975, 20). The Bhagavata-purana was written circa 10th century C.E., and discusses the first eleven years of Krsna’s life at Vraja, which he spent living amongst the cowherds (Krsna in History and Legend, 56).

An extremely popular myth cycle concerns the compelling relationships between Krsna and the cowherd woman, the gopis. As an overwhelmingly attractive young man, Krsna seems to enjoy a large part of his youth as a rampant womanizer; however, his fondness for these women and the dynamics of his relations with the gopis, are of a greater substance than that. The gopis exist as representations of those who would aspire to intimacy with the divine; they are that which all devotees of Krsna should aspire to be (Kinsley 1979: 77). The gopis mentioned in the earlier Vaisnava Puranas are not the more polished entertainers they become in such later texts, such as the Brahma-vaivarta-purana and the Govinda-lilamrta. First depicted as more pastoral, they eventually become the inspiring adornments of his heavenly realm of Vrndavana. It is the relationship between Krsna and one particular gopi, Radha, that has gained more modern notority. David Kinsley states that Krsna’s lovemaking should be examined in its relations to the gopis as a group, or to a particular gopi such as Radha (Kinsley 1979: 78). This is because these relations with the gopis are symbolic to the personal relationships between the divine and its devotees.

The Bhagavadgita reveals Krsna as the teacher and as the divine. In it Krsna is a charioteer for his friend Arjuna, and counsels him before a coming battle. He reveals himself as the 8th avatar of Visnu and teaches Arjuna the path of bhakti-yoga (Kinsley 1975: 57). Bhakti means devotion, and is offered by Krsna as the ultimate means of salvation. It becomes a central concept to those who follow Krsna, as calling on his divinity will bring that individual salvation (Kinsley 1975: 57). Krsna could be viewed as the embodiment of Hindu devotionalism, and the history of his worship displays many periods in which the concept of bhakti has been expressed in differing ways. In the 7th to 10th centuries in southern India, bhakti was seen as ardent love, which gave way to bhakti cults (Kinsley 1975: 59-60). Krsna is capable of inspiring such passion because of his relatable nature, and his differing aspects; he can be approached as a son, a teacher, a friend, a lover, a confidant, and a god. As Krsna changed, so too did the concept of bhakti. The gopis become the true symbol of what it means to be a devotee of Krsna, for even in the strict social confines of Hindu society they ignore these social boundaries in order to bring themselves closer to the pure state of being that is Krsna (Kinsley 1975: 65). Ever enigmatic, Krsna allows one to explore his nature and through the sheer delight of discovering him, uncover one’s own true self.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Kinsley, David R. The Sword and the Flute: Kali and Krsna, Dark visions of the

Terrible and Sublime in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975.

Kinsley, David R. The Divine Player (A study of Krsna Līlā). Delhi: Motilal

Banarsidass, 1979.

Majumdar, Bimanbehari. Krsna in History and Legend. Centre of Advanced Study in

Ancient Indian History and Culture: University of Calcutta, Lectures and Seminars No. III-A. India: University of Calcutta Press, 1969.

Rodrigues, Hillary. Hinduism – The Ebook. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online

Books, Ltd, 2006.

Related Topics

Visnu

Ananda

Kali

Lila

Radha diacritic

Devi

Bhagavadgita

Rama

Sita

Mahabharata

Ramayana

Noteworthy Websites about Krsna

www.krishna.com

www.vedabase.net/sb/

www.dlshq.org/religions/esoteric_avatara.htm

www.exoticindiaart.com/article/krishnaimage

Article written by: Stephanie McNiven (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.